Why Women in India Earn Less And Get Fewer Jobs—Discrimination
- Others
- by Mayurakshi Dutta
- 01 Mar, 2023
The latest National and Family Health Survey (NFHS 5) reports that the female labour force participation rate (LFPR) in India is 25 per cent whereas for male LFPR it is 57.5 per cent. The difference is not surprising, yet deeply worrying.
Today is Zero Discrimination Day. This annual day celebrated on 1 March each year by the United Nations and other international organisations aims to promote equality before the law and in practice throughout all of the member countries of the United Nations. Let us understand how gender-based discrimination continues to play an active role in keeping women in the margins of the labour market and economic empowerment and what can be done to combat the discrimination that women face in the labour market.
India has historically reported a low female LFPR. Nepal (79 per cent) and Bhutan (52 per cent) are the countries with the highest female LFPRs and the rates are significantly more than India. Bangladesh (35 per cent), Maldives (34 per cent) and Sri Lanka (31 percent) also fare better than India. The only countries that fall behind India are Pakistan (21 per cent), Afghanistan (15 per cent), and Iran (14 per cent). Reeling under a predominantly patriarchal society that promotes the sexual division of labour, women have spent a disproportionate amount of time caring for their families and doing domestic chores, which have restricted women to the private sphere of their homes. Oxfam India’s 2020 inequality report titled On Women’s Backs asserts how unpaid care work eventually culminates in extreme forms of income and time poverty for women, affecting their health and emotional well-being and limiting their aspirations for education and paid work.
However, women’s involvement in unpaid care work is barely one factor that restricts women’s entry into the labor market. The bulk of studies that have analysed the country’s low female LFPRs have agreed upon four major factors:
- increased enrolment of girls in secondary education,
- increase in household incomes which have allowed women to leave agricultural labour,
- mismeasurement of women’s participation in the labour force such as not accounting for unpaid labour, and
- unavailability of employment opportunities in the non-farm sector.
This is, however, one side of the story.
The other side of the story is about women who have entered the labor market and are engaged in paid employment. Oxfam India’s 2022 India Discrimination Report, which studied the differential access to the labor market, was a revelation. The labor market was found to mirror the sociocultural realities of the country. It found that the Indian labour market is typically characterized by an extreme gender gap in employment and wages and discriminatory attitudes toward women. The report observed that despite a decline in discrimination in the labour market in the past one and half decade, it is characterised by a high degree of gender discrimination.
It indicates that differences in individual endowments or capabilities such as the level of education, years of employment, ownership of assets, landholding and parental education do not adequately explain gendered inequalities in employment and wages and that gender-based discrimination is an important driver of these inequalities.
Individual endowments are beneficial for men and increase their chances at securing decent work much more than women. In fact, 98 per cent of the employment gap between men and women in urban areas is because of gender-based discrimination whereas differences in endowments explain only 2 per cent of that gap. Additionally, 67 per cent of the gender gap in wages can be attributed to gender-based discrimination.
An important driver of such discrimination are gender-linked prejudices of the employers and their gender-blind policies. Many employers deliberately employ men over women irrespective of their individual capabilities, despite being “fair and open”. Such employers believe that the requirements of the job entailing late hours of work, travel to remote areas, and certain working conditions etc., make women ill-suited for such jobs. Employers also practice status-based discrimination where they consider a woman’s marital status and motherhood responsibilities as obstacles that would hinder her competence and productivity in the workspace.
Sociologists coined the term “motherhood penalty” to refer to the additional disadvantages that mothers face compared to non-mothers and men. Insights from research suggests that employers are likely to hire non-mothers and men more than mothers are. If hired, mothers often receive a salary that is lower than the former. However, men do not experience such penalties on becoming fathers. Evidence, in fact, suggests that fathers enjoy a “fatherhood bonus” where their earnings increase.
In rural areas, particularly, the discrimination report makes another striking observation. The higher the level of education or income of the household heads, lesser are the chances of women joining the labour market. These households adhere to the sexual division of labour where men play the role of breadwinners and women take care of their families. Households, where the head has lesser levels of education and income, practice greater leniency on the sexual division of labour, particularly when families are in deep water for subsistence.
However, the sexual division of labour does not remain limited to the boundaries of home. It is extended to the labour market too. It is best explained in the book Seeing Like a Feminist, where Menon writes, “Certain kinds of work are considered to be 'women's work', and other kinds, men's;… nursing and teaching (particularly at lower levels) are predominantly female professions and are also comparatively ill-paid in relation to other white-collar jobs… this 'feminization' of teaching and nursing is because such work is seen as an extension of the nurturing work that women do within the home”.
Women are also more likely to be engaged in the informal sector in both rural and urban areas. NFHS-5 reports that 56.7 per cent females are engaged in informal non-agricultural sector across the country. They are also significantly more likely to be working as informal workers in the formal sector than men are. The state’s zero accountability towards it makes it a breeding ground for discrimination – the workers face high risks to their human and labour rights, unsafe and unregulated working conditions and lower wages among many other vulnerabilities. They are devoid of any employment security, paid leaves, health benefits or social security.
Committing to the fight against gender-based discrimination and ensuring economic equity will require our collective efforts for a sustained period. There is an urgent need to challenge gendered social norms that restrain women to their homes by starting conversations within our families and communities.
We need to strengthen and enable civil societies working on unpaid care work and allied issues to act as agents of change. Employers should ensure gender-sensitivity in their policies by providing paid parental leaves and flexible work schedules to ease the sharing of care work between working spouses and to balance home and work. The government can do its bit by enforcing effective measures for the protection of the right to equal wages and work for all women. It can also incentivise the women’s workforce participation, through enhancements in pay, upskilling, job reservations, easy return-to-work options, particularly after maternity and the option to work from home, wherever possible.
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Oct 7, 2019 | ursila
Examining humanitarian aid through the gender lens
Oct 24, 2019 | ursila
The pathways to gender equality are far from straight
Oct 7, 2019 | ursila
The changing world of humanitarian work
Sep 10, 2019 | ursila
Can India be a Leader in Disaster Risk Reduction Measures in Asia?
Oct 7, 2019 | ursila
A struggle for survival: Assam Floods
Nov 11, 2019 | Anisha
Lessons to be learnt from the Gorakhpur tragedy
Oct 24, 2019 | ursila
Is Section 498A anti women?
Nov 11, 2019 | ursila
The Irresistible & Oppressive Gaze: A Survey Report by Oxfam India
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
North East Floods: How you can help those affected?
Oct 1, 2019 | Ravi
Oxfam is responding in Assam Floods 2017
Oct 1, 2019 | Ravi
Lipstick Under My Burkha Official Trailer - Winner of Oxfam's Best Film on Gender Equality Award
Sep 27, 2019 | Ravi
Sourcing Life
Oct 7, 2019 | Anisha
MEETING TOILET TARGETS
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Disaster Changed Her Life
Oct 24, 2019 | Anisha
#HaqBantaHai Campaign on Access to Free Medicine: Bihar
Sep 10, 2019 | Anisha
Be The New Norm
Oct 7, 2019 | Ravi
Oxfam India’s Recommendations for National Policy for Women
Sep 27, 2019 | Ravi
The Greatest Earning: EDUCATION
Dec 5, 2019 | Anisha
Women Farmers or Labourers?
Oct 24, 2019 | Avantika
Farewell Dirty Water
Jan 9, 2020 | Avantika
Clean Water Can Save Lives
Oct 24, 2019 | Avantika
Making men an ally on women's rights
Oct 24, 2019 | Avantika
'Initially the men opposed. They thought we women were being disruptive.'
Oct 1, 2019 | Avantika
Tax havens resist reforms one year on from Panama Papers exposé
Oct 1, 2019 | Avantika
इख़्तियार
Oct 24, 2019 | Avantika
Lessons from the Grassroots
Sep 10, 2019 | Avantika
This is What Child Marriage Looks Like
Nov 18, 2019 | Avantika
Oxfam India Held Youth Festivals In Lucknow And Raipur
Sep 9, 2019 | Avantika
Oxfam at the North-East Disaster Risk Reduction Conclave 2017
Sep 9, 2019 | Avantika
Finding Solutions to Early and Forced Marriage
Sep 27, 2019 | Avantika
Silence Has No Honour
Sep 27, 2019 | Avantika
Solidarity Is Our Weapon- The International Women’s Strike
Oct 24, 2019 | Avantika
4 reasons why Oxfam supports the International Women’s Strike on the 8th March
Oct 24, 2019 | Avantika
Union Budget 2017-18: Neglected Social Sector
Sep 10, 2019 | Avantika
Putting Data at the Heart of Business Responsibility
May 13, 2019 | Avantika
Mainstreaming DRR in Local Development Plans to Reduce Aid Dependency
Oct 1, 2019 | Avantika
Union Budget 2017-18: A Look at the Health Sector
Apr 5, 2019 | Avantika
खेल - जेण्डर आधारित असमानताओं को उजागर करने को एक सषक्त माध्यम
Apr 5, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Why Brazil should not take a U-turn on its health system
Oct 7, 2019 | Avantika
Your questions answered: Oxfam’s Inequality report
Oct 1, 2019 | Avantika
Unpacking the Risks of Doing Business in India
Nov 14, 2019 | Avantika
We Never Learn
Sep 27, 2019 | Ravi
Promote men’s involvement for changing social norms
Oct 24, 2019 | Avantika
Ten years of the Forest Rights Act: Opportunity lost?
Oct 1, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Meet the Bravehearts Standing Up Against Domestic Violence
May 27, 2020 | oxfamadmin
Addressing Violence Against Women and Girls the SAARC Way: Combat Human Trafficking
Sep 10, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Oxfam India’s journey from programme to campaign
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
सामाजिक मान्यताओं को चुनौती देता संगठन
Dec 5, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Changing The World – One Couple At A Time
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
A Lesson on Education from Uttar Pradesh
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Fair Sharing of Mining Revenue for the Tribals
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
An Open Letter to Chhotu, Munna and Bachcha
Jun 12, 2020 | oxfamadmin
Educating the Educators
Sep 27, 2019 | oxfamadmin
10 Years of Domestic Violence Act: The Way Ahead
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Oxfam Best Film on Gender Equality Award Gets Grand Reception
Sep 27, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Wrestling Social Norms Out
Oct 3, 2019 | oxfamadmin
The Toilet Conundrum
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Inequality in India: what's the real story?
Sep 27, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Making surface water safe for drinking
Oct 1, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Quality Education- The unfinished agenda of RTE Act
Sep 27, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Tale of Two Women
Sep 27, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Prioritising the Health of our Children
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Violence in women’s own backyard
Sep 9, 2019 | oxfamadmin
We failed yet again
Sep 10, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Providing access to iron-free drinking water
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Her Series - Tale of Buguru Chitamma: How a cooperative transformed fisher women into leaders
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Why the CAF bill conflicts with the Forest Rights Act?
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Renew to Live Anew
Sep 9, 2019 | oxfamadmin
What do we want: Health as a ‘Right’ or just an ‘Assurance’
Nov 18, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Oxfam International signs historic deal to move to Nairobi, Kenya
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Why is passing the Women’s Reservation Bill urgent?
Nov 18, 2019 | oxfamadmin
BREXIT & What It Means for Humanitarian Aid
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Rahul Bose: Films should be gender sensitive
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Portrait of a Teacher: Successful introduction of multi-lingual education for Odisha’s tribal communities
Nov 6, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Tax dodging is a crime against developing countries
Sep 10, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Signs of social risks impacting Indian businesses
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Tikamgarh revisited, what’s happened to the amazing fishing communities I visited in 2006?
Jan 9, 2020 | oxfamadmin
Where school means freedom
Sep 10, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Yes, Prime Minister
Oct 30, 2019 | oxfamadmin
India’s National Budget 2016-17: Missed Opportunity to Address Inequality?
Oct 1, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Free The Night
Sep 9, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Woman, Open Your Eyes…
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
From Darbhanga to Davos: Access to Affordable Medicine Still Remains a Key Question
Dec 16, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Hoping for a Second Chance: Punita Devi
Sep 27, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Activating Youth in Lucknow to Promote Girls’ Education
Sep 27, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Change is Coming: Rani Bitti’s Story
Sep 10, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Rachna’s Fight for Justice
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
3 Key Observations from #WEF2016 that Indian Businesses Must Take Note Of
Sep 27, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Here’s Why States Need to Provide Free Basic Medicines
Nov 18, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Update: Oxfam to Provide Shelter to 300 Households Hit by The Manipur Earthquake
Apr 5, 2019 | oxfamadmin
In El Salvador, a struggle to survive El Niño
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Bihar designs a 15-year roadmap to reduce risk of disaster
Feb 20, 2020 | ursila
Violence as an Effective Mode of “Indian” Communication
Apr 5, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Because it’s 2015!
Sep 27, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Let’s welcome a new dawn, minus domestic violence
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Data and Discrimination: Women’s Ownership of Assets in India
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
“No Woman, No Cry!”
Sep 27, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Pushing, pulling and the power of people: new horizons for corporate responsibility?
Jan 9, 2020 | oxfamadmin
Yes bank - say to inclusive and social banking and inclusive business model
Sep 27, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Creating shared value through inclusive business
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
TATA consultancy services – empowering farmers with mobile technology
Sep 27, 2019 | oxfamadmin
What the CSR numbers don’t tell
Oct 1, 2019 | oxfamadmin
6 important things companies need to do to be inclusive
Nov 21, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Why businesses need to invest in creating a productive population for a sustainable future
Sep 10, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Jaipur rugs – weaving the lives of the poor into the global markets. an inclusive business model.
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
The next 15 years: highlighting the role of the private sector in development
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Emphasizing a human rights-based approach to inclusiveness in business
Oct 30, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Privatising Forests: A Bad Idea
Oct 30, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Adoption of Agenda 2030: 17 SDGs for 15 years
Nov 15, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Five questions about the #GlobalGoals you were too embarrassed to ask
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Last mile smile
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Social responsibility of companies should not stop at 2%
Sep 27, 2019 | oxfamadmin
In ‘campaign mode’, states flout FRA rules
Sep 27, 2019 | oxfamadmin
“I will not leave my forest. I will keep my jungle”
Oct 1, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Healthcare for all in India: When, How, and Why RSBY?
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Where is the nutrition? Ask pregnant women in a village of Bihar
Jan 9, 2020 | oxfamadmin
Learning to read at schools, but where are the textbooks?
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Progressive tax norms must underlie financing of the Sustainable Development Goals
Sep 27, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Teachers needed! Government schools are falling behind due to lack of funds
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Protect and expand India’s public healthcare system: The inequality imperative
Dec 16, 2019 | oxfamadmin
“On My Second Day At School, A Kid Asked Me What Caste I Was”
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
India’s missing girls: A tale of healthcare neglect faced by girls
Sep 9, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Should we only give attention to women’s health on International day of action?
Nov 18, 2019 | oxfamadmin
No respite for 72-year-old Sitaram, a month after #NepalEarthquake
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
One month on, education of children still jolted by Nepal earthquake
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
New worry for Nepal; landslides, floods may block relief work
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Monsoon preview in Kathmandu blows away shelters in relief camp
Oct 1, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Last mile distribution of relief supplies is biggest challenge in Nepal: Indian ambassador
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
When Delhi’s Streets Buzzed with ‘Haq Banta Hai’
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Lack of water, toilets making things worse for women in Nepal
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Oxfam India gets government approval to respond to #NepalEarthquake in 28 hours
Apr 5, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Desperation creeping in, people in Nepal wait for aid
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
#OxfaminNepal: “More than 60,000 litres of water has been provided till now”
Oct 7, 2019 | Avantika
Political (and some other) priorities in Nepal as of 28 April 2015
Oct 30, 2019 | oxfamadmin
#Nepal Earthquake: “The death toll has crossed 2000 and this is just the beginning”
Jan 9, 2020 | oxfamadmin
#NepalEarthquake: It is going to be a long road to recovery
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Money Matters!
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
All for Education, Education for All
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
When schools continue to exclude, can education reduce caste discrimination in India?
Feb 20, 2020 | oxfamadmin
Ensuring the right to education, forming bonds for life
Oct 1, 2019 | oxfamadmin
How can India send a spaceship to Mars but not educate its children?
Sep 30, 2019 | oxfamadmin
India wins in cricket, but losing out on education
Sep 30, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Oxfam's 'Even it up' report a must read lesson on Inequality
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
It’s time to understand ‘womanhood is beyond maternity’
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
The True Measure of Land's Value
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
The “Ten-thousand Committee”: Reviving VHSNCs in Jharkhand
Oct 1, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Singing their way out of child marriage
Sep 10, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Land Acquisition bill tests government’s pro-poor stance
Oct 1, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Breaking the silence, standing tall
Sep 27, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Making a Song and Dance about Child Marriage
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Let’s Talk About Sex
Sep 10, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Mobile technology solutions could be a game changer for maternal health: Scribes
Sep 27, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Missing Girls: The Puzzling Domestic Violence Agenda
Oct 3, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Her Ghar: A right to residence for every woman
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Considering Gender: A Mediaperson’s Guide to Covering Disasters
Dec 16, 2019 | oxfamadmin
True Grit
Apr 5, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Violence against women and star power: Does their magic wand work?
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Having Those Difficult Conversations
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Day of the Man: guarding the china shop
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Gender parity needs to begin at home with mother’s guardianship rights!
Sep 9, 2019 | oxfamadmin
It’s a Girl!
Oct 1, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Let’s Help End Domestic Violence!
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
A Few Good Men
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Promises to keep—Implementation of PWDV Act in Odisha
Sep 27, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Make 16 Days of Activism an Everyday Practice
Oct 30, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Witch-Hunting: A less talked about form of Violence Against Women
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Markets Also Discriminate
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Let’s Talk About Domestic Violence!
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Getting Serious about Ending Violence against Women and Girls
Oct 3, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Right to a Violence Free Life
Sep 10, 2019 | oxfamadmin
It’s all about the money
Sep 10, 2019 | oxfamadmin
‘It’s No Longer Funny': The Funding Wars That’ll Dictate Our Future
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Girl, Interrupted
Oct 1, 2019 | oxfamadmin
16 Pictures From Imagining Inequality That WiIl Tell You The Truth #evenitup
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
These 8 Goals Were Set To Develop The World, But 14 Years Since, This Is Where We Stand
Dec 5, 2019 |
A Look At The Year 2029: What Kind Of Legacy Will We Leave Behind For Our Future Generations?
Nov 18, 2019 |
These 8 Goals Were Set To Develop The World, But 14 Years Since, This Is Where We Stand
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
BRICS bank a necessary step, but needs more transparency
Sep 9, 2019 |
Short term memory and Long term needs!
Oct 7, 2019 |
A people’s budget has to go beyond...
Oct 24, 2019 |
National Shame, National Failure
Sep 27, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Oxfam India pledges its support to #BringBackOurGirls
Oct 1, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Closing the Gap on Gender: Is India up for the challenge?
Nov 15, 2019 | oxfamadmin
She tills, she sows, but she does not own
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Take a pause: what do the Uttrakhand floods tell us about India’s development model?
Sep 10, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Saving lives on sharp turning roads
Oct 1, 2019 | oxfamadmin
They do mind the gap
Oct 7, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Right to Education, still a long way to go.
Oct 1, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Can We Close the Gap on Women's Inequality in India?
Oct 30, 2019 | oxfamadmin
Breaking Old Barriers and Building New Alliances for Food Justice in India and Globally
Oct 24, 2019 | oxfamadmin
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